First published on www.aspectsofhistory.com
In England, the phrase ‘Norman Conquest’ immediately conjures up images of arrows in the eye, the Bayeux tapestry and an abrupt transition from Anglo-Saxon rule to Norman feudalism. But the conquest of England was just one facet of the extraordinary expansion of Norman power throughout the 11th Century.
The other major region of conquest for the Normans was the Italian peninsula and Sicily and here, just like in England, they established enduring dynasties and even kingdoms. Unlike the conquest of England, the conquest of Italy was a far more prolonged affair without a definitive ‘Battle of Hastings’ moment. In part, this reflects the fact that the region they were entering did not have the single, centralised powerbase that England did at the end of the Anglo-Saxon period. Because of this, the conquest of Southern Italy was a more piecemeal affair, taking over a century in all, but historically significant nonetheless.
The earliest reference to Normans in Italy is in the year 999. At this time the Italian peninsula was a mishmash of small principalities, duchies, and the papal states, with the Kingdon of Lombardy in the far North and large areas in the South that were under the control of the Byzantine empire (whose capital was Constantinople). According to legend, Norman pilgrims were returning from Jerusalem by way of Salerno. Whilst they were staying with the prince of Salerno, the city came under siege by Saracen forces who demanded tribute. The prince dutifully started to gather the tribute, but his Norman guests took matters into their own hands and attacked the Saracens and broke the siege.
So impressed was the prince by the martial prowess of the pilgrims that he invited more Normans to come to him as mercenaries. This was a mistake that was to be oft repeated over the coming decades as the mercenaries consistently recognised their own strength and started to take the lands of their employers for themselves.
Norman mercenaries sold their swords to whoever would pay and were found on various sides in the endless conflicts between the Southern Italian states and the Byzantine empire. Indeed, it appears that the Normans skilfully plied their trade in such a way as to ensure that no-one in the region gained supremacy. A Benedictine monk and chronicler, Amatus of Montecassino, wrote that, ‘the Normans never desired any of the Lombards [a general term for Italians at the time] to win a decisive victory, in case it should be to their disadvantage’.
Over time the Norman mercenaries were rewarded with some territory and then took some more. For example, Ranulf Drengot was given the County of Aversa in 1030 which he steadily enlarged until it was one of the largest territories in Southern Italy.
The Norman land grab really accelerated under the Hauteville brothers. These were sons of a minor Norman noble who had left Normandy to seek their fortunes. Initially, the first three brothers – William, Drogo and Humphrey- arrived as mercenaries but they soon started to establish their own fiefdoms. In particular William, now known as ‘William Iron Arm’, was elected as Count of Apulia. He was succeeded by Drogo and then Humphrey as each brother died. After the death of Humphrey, a younger half-brother, Robert ‘the weasel’ Guiscard, took the title and proceeded to drive the Byzantines from Italy, taking the conquered territory for himself. He then helped his brother, Roger, invade Sicily in 1061 and become its ruler. Over the next few decades, Roger and his descendants increased their territory to include Southern Italy, parts of Greece and parts of North Africa, the whole of this area being styled as the Kingdom of Sicily.
Not content with these enormous gains, many Norman adventurers went to the mainland Byzantine empire, sometimes as mercenaries supporting the empire in its wars against the Seljuk Turks and the Pechenegs, and sometimes trying to carve out territories of their own. Robert Guiscard repeatedly attacked the Byzantine empire, particularly in the Balkans, often in the company of his son, Bohemond of Taranto.
Bohemond would remain a pebble in the shoe of Byzantium right up until the point when he appeared in Constantinople as one of the major leaders of the First Crusade. Despite now being a supposed ally of the empire, Bohemond inevitably used the opportunity of the crusade to seize the city of Antioch and style himself as the ‘Prince of Antioch’.
If there is a ‘Battle of Hastings moment’ during this conquest, it is the Battle of Civitate in 1053. This was a last-ditch attempt by the Pope and his powerful allies, the Duke of Lorraine and the Prince of Benevento, to oust the Norman armies from Southern Italy. The Normans were victorious and this victory ultimately led (albeit several years later) to the papal recognition of the Norman conquest of the region.
In light of the enormous territorial gains made by Normans in the Mediterranean, the conquest of England seems almost trivial. But what led to this incredible sequence of conquests gave Normans control of lands from England in the far north of Europe all the way to the coast of North Africa?
No doubt there are many underlying causes, but Norman culture at that time made such an expansion almost inevitable. Firstly, it was less than a century since the Vikings had settled in Normandy in 911. The Viking culture of raiding and conquering must still have had a strong influence on the Norman psyche.
Secondly, they were a highly militarised society, prizing martial prowess above all else. Young noblemen were raised as soldiers, trained from childhood as fighters and leaders. William the Conqueror, as an example, was already leading armies and crushing rebellions in his teens. As a fighting force they were formidable, particularly with regards to their cavalry.
The third major factor is the emergence of primogeniture as a mode of inheritance. This led to droves of young knights who knew nothing else but how to fight and who, upon the death of their father, suddenly found themselves without land or money unless they could win some for themselves. With limited opportunity in Normandy, they had to look elsewhere.
Whatever factors made the Normans such insatiable conquerors, their achievements throughout the 11th century were truly remarkable.
Adam Staten writes historical fiction. Books one and two of the Honour Bound Trilogy are out now.
